Warrants in the Toulmin Model of Argument

Aviation Memory and Cognition Research Proposal

Flying Memory and Cognition - Research Proposal Example Also, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) found that on June 19, 2011 two airplanes came â€Å"within 300 feet of each other† (à ir’, 2012). Cessna 172 and ExpressJet that was conveying 53 individuals neglected to distinguish a contention paying little heed to the way that they were both associated with the radio traffic control. The Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) found that the controller who was on the job on the pinnacle had a negative history of â€Å"professional deficiencies† with endless occasions where he ignored the standard techniques agenda that must be followed consistently (‘Air’, 2012). This examination paper means to propose an insightful investigation to distinguish the variables that offer ascent to approach miss occasions by the ATCOs and how memory misfortunes builds the quantity of close miss episodes. The main role of directing this exploration is to expose the issue of close miss by the ATCOs and the different variables that offer ascent to approach miss circumstances. This exploration proposition will give a short writing survey on the point, approach, inquire about plan, anticipated result of the proposed examine. Nashef (2003) featured that the idea of close miss in aviation authority administrations alludes to the loss of division between two airplanes noticeable all around which if not forestall would prompt mid-air crash. In this way, a close miss is the circumstance wherein the two airplanes came near one another yet didn't impact. Nashef (2003) has arranged close miss circumstances in three kinds, specifically: Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3. Type 1 close to miss is one where the occurrence has happened and the introduced framework in the airplanes effectively distinguished and rectified the circumstance. It functioned as it was intended to work and in this way, no mischief was really done. Type 2 close to miss is one where the occurrence happened yet at least one of the introduced framework in the airplane really neglected to identify the loss of

Should the US Government Lower the Voting Age to 16?

Should the US Government Lower the Voting Age to 16?In my last article on essay samples I suggested that the US government should lower the voting age. In this article I will explore why the US government should lower the voting age. To be perfectly honest the only real argument against lowering the voting age is that those who support the status quo are often Democrats and Republicans.After every election the government lowers the voting age. This is a move that should have been made in 2020, yet it wasn't. The first time I heard about this I was already well into my adulthood, but once I began reading about the potential for abuse, I took a look at it a second time.So where did the idea come from that the government lowers the voting age to improve election integrity? If you read through some of the essay samples that are now being offered, I am fairly certain that you will find that several of them contain highly questionable or outright false information. The usual suspects inclu de random people randomly picking names, people from countries where English is not the primary language, people on the internet, people who claim to be experts in several different subjects.Do you see where I am going with this? I'm not suggesting that any of these essays samples are completely untrustworthy, but they shouldn't be taken as gospel either. The essay samples used to back up the claim that the voting age should be lowered are usually from individuals who have little understanding of the basic principles of elections, let alone the particular laws in the US.For instance, in an article entitled 'What We Need to Know' one of the authors states that we need to 'feel safe trusting our government to help us choose our next leader'. Does this mean we should not make decisions that will involve the US government at all? Does this mean that we can trust our government to make decisions for us when it comes to our healthcare or our education?The fact is that the goal of essay sa mples like these should not be to convince us to trust the US government. The goal should be to get us to reconsider and come to our own conclusions about which candidate is best for us. I have no problem with individual citizens deciding what their preferences are, as long as they remain unbiased and in the public eye.The idea that the US government is somehow biased and corrupt because they prefer to keep their people uneducated and uninvolved in politics does not mesh with the idea that individual citizens can have any say in their government. It does not mesh with the notion that the US government is overstepping its bounds when it attempts to push through their policies.In conclusion, it appears that essay samples that use the voting age as a weapon of persuasion against President Trump and other politicians are running out of steam, but they will probably keep appearing. Some of these essays samples will probably look very persuasive when you read them, but if you take them as gospel and start believing them you will end up with something that isn't very good.

Lean on Me a review of the movie Essays - 568 Words

Lean on me is a good film especially for school administrators and people who are thinking of becoming an administrator some day. It gives us a lot of insight in handling different challenges faced by administrators. There were a couple of interesting points that struck me while watching the movie. I especially liked the line at the start of the movie – â€Å"Discipline is not the enemy of enthusiasm†. This line is very true. It doesn’t mean that when discipline is established in school, the students lose the eagerness to learn. In fact, I believe that discipline goes hand in hand with the enthusiasm to learn. But the skill I would like to focus on is Mr. Clark’s decision making. I completely agree with Mr. Clark’s decision making. He was not†¦show more content†¦Although as an administrator, you’ve already made your decision, it is still important to listen to what the â€Å"others† have to say. It shows that you value their opinion and are willing to do something about their suggestion. Although I admire Mr. Clark’s courage in making decisions despite resistance, I do not agree with him when he became very uncompromising with the suggestions the other teachers made. Maybe because the school is already in the worst possible situation or as Mr. Clark would say, â€Å"Desperate times, call for desperate measure†. But in cases not as worse as East Side High, the administrator should take time to listen and be open to suggestions. Mr. Clark even went as far as embarrassing some teachers and students in front of a crowd. This to me is also disagreeable. Students, more so teachers should not be reprimanded in public. Instead of trying to make them understand your point, you might end up with more defiance. What I think should be done in public is to praise anyone who did a good/right thing. Mr. Clark lacked this. Mr. Clark needs to give more compliments. As an administrator, you need to complement and acknowledge anyone who did a good job. This is a form of motivation to do better the next time. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;At the end of the day, though Mr. Clark had his own flaws and shortcomings, he wasShow MoreRelatedLean On Me By Movie Review1226 Words   |  5 PagesLean on Me is a 1989 fact-based film that portrays the struggles prevalent in a school district in New Jersey and how one man uses multiple strategies to make the ultimate solution. East Side High was once a successful school. Like many other aspects of society, school district administrators watch as this school deteriorates from drug abuse, violence, and lack of motivation amongst students. The superintendent, Dr. Napier recruits Mr. Joe Clark, an independent minded teacher as the new principalRead MoreThe Longest Yard1217 Words   |  5 PagesRhetoric 101 The Longest Yard (Stereotypes and all) What our society has become truly amazes me every day. The things we watch and enjoy as a culture are sometimes highly offense. I choose to look at the movie The Longest Yard for an in depth look at stereotypes in our society. After watching and studying this movie I can only ask myself one question: What have we become? The Longest Yard is a movie about a former NFL MVP quarterback (played by Adam Sandler) jailed for joyriding his girlfriend’sRead MoreMovie Analysis : Dad With Jack Lemmon, Ted Danson, And Olympia Dukakis1309 Words   |  6 Pages I chose to watch the movie â€Å"DAD† with Jack Lemmon, Ted Danson, and Olympia Dukakis, just to name a few of the actors. In the past, I’ve seen â€Å"The Notebook† and absolutely loved it, but I wanted to allow myself a new opportunity with a fresh perspective. DAD is a story about family, missed opportunities, and estranged relationships, along with dedication, commitments, and loyalty. I found this movie inspiring, as well as, an accurate portrayal of not only aging, but more importantly, the powerRead MoreThe Style And Writing Of A. M. Forster s Writing1679 Words   |  7 Pagesone side says the other is lying and vice versa. There was a movie made from this book, A Passage to India. The movie was written and directed by David Lean. This movie is a rare case of almost exactly what the book has. This movie could not have made the novel come to life better than they did. For a book and a movie to be so similar and almost exact is very rare in today’s age or in any age for that point (Ebert 13). Mr. Lean thought that the way Forster had written A Passage to India was ssoRead MoreFilm Review : The Movie Oslo 1716 Words   |  7 PagesProcess Paper One: Oslo, August 31st The film I chose to watch and review was a 2011 Norwegian film titled Oslo, August 31st. The film dealt with addiction, relapse and suffering. I chose this film primarily for two reasons: First, it was listed on the Internet Movie Database (IMDb) as a film that explores drug use, suffering and suicide (co-occurring disorders). Secondly, I selected it because it is a Foreign / Norwegian film. I am a huge Art-house and European films fan and was thrilled thatRead MoreWhen A Man Loves A Woman1190 Words   |  5 Pages When a Man Loves a Woman Movie Media Review Taylor Drake University of Maryland University College The codependent person works hard to control the behavior of their partner and, in doing so forgets what the roles and responsibilities are of each person in the relationship. When the relationship roles and responsibilities become blurred due to codependency, the relationship has just became one sided and could lead to over attachment or abuse which then can become an emotionallyRead MoreFast Food Is Synonymous With Bad Health Essay1688 Words   |  7 Pagesfind ways to innovate their approaches to draw in crowds, and most important of all, to rake in the cash. Most decisions in the corporate world are made because of money; For example, the rise in reboots in the movie industry can be attributed to the assumption that reboots of famous movie franchises are guaranteed money makers. Because of this, the fast food industry does not care about the health effects of its consumers. Occasionally, a restaurant will introduce healthier items to the menu in anRead MoreAnalysis Of Shakespea re s King Lear 1262 Words   |  6 PagesThe opportunity to view both productions of King Lear has appeared twice for me in the past two years. The first time I viewed Trevor Nunn’s 2009 production of King Lear my review would have been based solely on my ability to understand the dialogue and my appreciation of the acting of Ian McKellen. Two years later I have a better understanding of the actual play and while I still enjoy the 2009 production the 1982 production directed by Jonathan Miller presents the words of William ShakespeareRead MoreMasculinity, Gender, And Men1375 Words   |  6 Pagesnursing depends on the de-gendering of the profession and the removal of some stigma attached to males in nursing. Cottingham (2014) analysed how male gender was constructed in advertisements aimed towards men interested in the nursing profession. In review of literature Cottingham (2014) noted that structures of gendered oppression simultaneously made nursing into a female profession and devalued any kind of work considered to be female. Currently, the need for nurses and the work they do is acutelyRead MoreImpromptu Topics1154 Words   |  5 Pagesor fake Christmas trees 1. peer to peer technology 1. Motorcycle helmets 1. the assasination of a dictator can/cannot be justified 1. Curfews 1. Alien abductions 1. The worst/best book you ever read 1. All time favorite movie 1. Your first memory 1. The best things in life are free 1. Clothes make the man/woman 1. Happy drugs (prozac, zoloft, etc.) 1. Good versus Evil 1. Your favorite sound 1. Your least favorite sound 1. Exams are/are not

Night by Elie Wiesel and A Spring Morning by Ida Fink

Dehumanization With an overwhelming amount of power, humanity becomes lost in the desire to control. In the novel Night by Elie Wiesel and the connection â€Å"A Spring Morning† by Ida Fink, both authors demonstrate a common theme of dehumanization by using literary devices such as: specific diction, symbolism and tone. Throughout the novel and connection, specific diction is used to express the hatred the Germans felt towards the Jewish during the Holocaust. In the connection â€Å"A Spring Morning†, the author uses words such as: â€Å"cruel†, â€Å"torment† and â€Å"murder† to show how the humiliation and fear within the Jews. Each of these words demonstrates a sense of inhumane acts of terror, for example, to be cruel to someone/ something means to be unnecessarily mean or evil. Fink also portrays the Jews as becoming dehumanized emotionally. The Jewish are â€Å"terrified† and in â€Å"despair† of the German officers and do not k now what will become of themselves once they are taken to the camps. The Germans have the Jewish detained and frightened, like caged animals, making them feel more animalistic than human. In the novel Night, Wiesel describes his journey through the Holocaust as â€Å"inhumane† and â€Å"cursed†, further showing how the Jews were treated poorly due to the Germans undeniable hatred towards them. The novel shows how the Nazi’s took advantage of the power and control they had over the Jews, making them unaware to the torment and hazard they were causing the Jews. Wiesel uses the word

The Ancient Olympics Essay Example For Students

The Ancient Olympics Essay Since 1896, the year the Olympics were resurrected from ancienthistory, the Olympics have been a symbol of the camaraderie and harmonypossible on a global scale. The gathering of athletic representatives,the pride of the pack, from participating governments, even throughoutthe recent Cold War period, is proof that world unity is possible; justas it was in Ancient Greece with the polis or city-states. Olympic Games were held throughout Ancient Greece, but the most famousare the games that were held in Olympia in honor of Zeus every fouryears from August 6th to September 19th. The first record of thesegames is of one Coroebus of Elis, a cook, winning a sprint race in 776BC. Most historians believe the games to have been going on forapproximately 500 years before this. In the year Coroebus was made apart of history, there was apparently only one simple event, a racecalled the stade. The track was said to be one stade long or roughly210 yards. In subsequent games, additional events were to be added, most likely toincrease the challenge to these amazing athletes. In 724 BC, thediaulos, a two stade race, was added, followed by a long distance race,about 2 miles and called the dolichos, at the next games four yearslater. Wrestling and the famous Pentathlon were introduced in 708 BC. The Pentathlon consisted of five events; the long jump, javelin throw,discus throw, foot race, and wrestling. The Pentathlons, especially thesuccessful ones, were often treated and even worshipped like gods. Because of their exquisite physiques, they were used as the models forstatues of the Greek Gods. The superior athletic ability of theseathletes affects the games even today. The twisting and throwing methodof the discus throw, which originated in Ancient Greece, is still usedtoday. The original events were even more challenging than those oftoday. The modern discus weighs in at just 5 pounds, one-third of theoriginal weight, and the long jumps were done with the contestantcarrying a five pound weight in each hand. The pit to be traversed inthis jump allowed for a 50 foot jump, compared to just over 29 feet inour modern Olympics. Apparently, the carried weights, used correctly,could create momentum to carry the athlete further. Legend has it thatone Olympian cleared the entire pit by approximately 5 feet, breakingboth legs as he landed. One significant difference between the modern and ancient games; theoriginal Olympians competed in the nude. Because of this, the 45,000spectators consisted of men and unwed virgin women only. The onlyexception to this would be the priestess of Demeter who was also theonly spectator honored with a seat. The young unwed women were allowedto watch to introduce them to men in all their splendor and brutalitywhereas it was felt that married women should not see what they couldnot have. In addition, the virgins had their own event which occurredon the mens religious day of rest. Called the Haria, in honor of Harathe wife of Zeus, the young women would race dressed in a short tunicwhich exposed the right breast. Traditionally, Spartan women dominatedthis event, being trained from birth for just this purpose. The religious undertones of the events became extremely apparent onthe third day of the games when a herd of 100 cows were killed as asacrifice to Zeus. In actuality, only the most useless parts wereburned in honor of Zeus; most of the meat would be cooked and eatenthat day. The sacrifices were conducted on a huge cone-shaped alterbuilt up from the ashes of previously sacrificed animals. The mound wasso large, the Greeks would cut steps into the cone after discovering itcould be hardened by adding water and drying. .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 , .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .postImageUrl , .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 , .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0:hover , .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0:visited , .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0:active { border:0!important; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0:active , .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0 .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u412af4e5c52bd192331e53887764a4e0:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Education In Colonial History Essay Another ingenious invention was a system to prevent early starts in thefoot races. It consisted of a bar in front of the runners to ensurethey all start at the same time. This most likely was viewed as ablessing by the competitors, as previous to this, they would be beatenby the judges with rods for an early jump. This system led to theextravagant mechanisms used for starting the chariot races in 680 BC. Other introductions to the games were boxing in 688 BC, the pancratium,a no-holds barred form of wrestling, in 648 BC, and eventually someevents for boys between 632 and 616 BC. The Olympics of old were entirely a man on man competition. No recordswere kept to be broken but a few amazing legends of the games havesurvived the test of time. Aegeus, for instance, was said to havecompleted his competition and then to run home to Argos, over 60 milesaway, in one day. Milo, one of the most feared Olympians of AncientGreece, was said to have carried a full grown bull to the arena,butchered it, and ate the entire animal in one day. Not surprisingly,he was said to have one many a wrestling match by the forfeiture of hisopponent. He also walked away with six consecutive Olympic crowns. These legends, for all their blood, sweat, and tears, were awarded anolive branch from the tree behind the alter of Zeus when they won. Fortunately, the regions they represented were usually somewhat moregrateful for bringing honor home. It was not uncommon for the victorsto receive free food for life, money, or other valuable offers. Theywere often worshipped as gods and sometimes their sweat was preservedand sold as a magical potion. In the later years of the games, an additional event was added whichsignaled the end of the games and the return to the war ridden life ofancient history. Soldiers, adorned with a full body of armor weighingupwards of 50 pounds, would compete in a foot race. Unfortunately, eventhe apparent athletic ability of these soldiers could not prevent thefall of Greece to Rome in the middle of the second century BC. UnderRoman rule, the Olympics began to lose its fervor until it was abolishedin 393 AD by the Christian Roman emperor Theodosius I who most likelyobjected to the pagan rites associated with the Olympics. Some historians believe that even after the official abolishment of theOlympics, it may have survived for an additional 120 years. Itssubsequent revival in 1896 was brought about by the discovery of theancient stadium. Since that time, it has been held every four years, inaccordance with tradition, being interrupted only for the two worldwars.The competition of the nations in these events represents theage old competitive spirit of man. The need for people to take pride insomething larger than themselves and feel as if they are part of agreater good. The Olympics, today as well as 3,000 years ago, offers anon-combative environment to do so.

Teamwork and communication errors in healthcare

Introduction This paper states that medical errors have a number of underlying causes, including the fallibility of medical personnel, uncertainty of medical knowledge and imperfection of organizational systems, and pays special attention to the negative outcomes of communication errors in healthcare, pointing at bypassing the traditional disciplinary and hierarchical boundaries as the measures which are necessary for improving the patient outcomes and the working environment for caregivers.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Teamwork and communication errors in healthcare specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Medical error The concept of avoidable harm caused by healthcare service providers has been discussed since the time of Hippocrates who defined the primary goal of medicine as doing no harm about 2,400 years ago. Called iatrogenic harm, the medical errors were considered as an inevitable product of modern medicine and one of its top five problems.1 The year 1999 has become a turning point in estimating the impact of medical mistakes, drawing the public and media attention to the existing problem and offering the measures for improving the patient safety. The publication of the report To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) became a significant contribution to the patient safety literature. 2 This report expanded the existing theoretical framework of medical errors and catalyzed the national movement towards improving the safety of healthcare by initiating important changes in culture and training for the medical workers.3 The efforts of IOM to fill the gaps between theory and practice of ensuring the patient safety were valuable because the existing terminology contained a great number of confusing and overlapping concepts. In modern patient safety literature, the concept of medical error is defined as an act of doing wrong things or the fa ilure of doing the right things in medical care resulting in a negative outcome of the chosen intervention or even the high potential of such an outcome. 4 The concept of safety is defined as freedom from hazard and is in inverse relationship with the risks. The breaches in safety and ethics of healthcare are the main underlying causes of the medical errors which result in needless suffering for patients and service providers.5 To define the level of safety, the balance between the likelihood of doing good or harm by implementing certain measures and the availability of choices should be considered in every individual situation.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More With the complexity of terms and processes, measuring the errors, safety and corresponding outcomes of treatment can be rather difficult. Thus, medical errors can do or do no harm to the patients’ conditio n, while the patients can experience harm from medical care even if no medical errors occurred. For this reason, it is important to distinguish between preventable and non-preventable adverse effects.6 Taking into account the fact that undesirable patient outcomes can be caused by a variety of reasons, some safety experts give preference to the term preventable adverse effects as the main target of the safety field.7 This term is not only politically correct but also defends caregivers, shifting the emphasis on the role of organizational systems in preventing the iatrogenic harm. However, another group of safety experts considers the term of preventable adverse effects as inappropriate and useless for catalyzing the changes in patient safety. Due to the variety of definitions and measurement systems, the data on the rates of medical errors and their impact differs from hospital to hospital. According to the estimates of the safety experts, the risks of flying in an airplane are lo wer than experiencing harm from being a patient in a hospital.8 Another group of researchers stated that an average hospitalized patient experiences approximately one medical error a day.9 The financial impact of these errors is profound. According to the data of the 1999 IM report, the costs of the preventable adverse effects only were between 17 billion and 29 billion dollars.10 Still, the largest harm of the medical errors is on the patients’ health and anxiety of caregivers who are the second victims of the unsafe organizational systems. Taking into account the frequency and the negative implications of medical errors on both patients and caregivers, it can be stated that moral and ethical considerations of patient safety play an important role in improving the organizational systems for minimizing the risks of experiencing harm due to their imperfection.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Teamwork and communication errors in healthcare speci fically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The problem of ineffective team work With the present-day pace of technological progress and the increased complexity and number of mediations and procedures, the appropriateness and safety of the provided health care services depend upon the effectiveness of teamwork. Taking into account the amount of professional knowledge and skills required for providing patients with appropriate treatment, it can be stated that the quality and safety of health care cannot be controlled by individual physicians anymore. The ineffective teamwork and communication errors are costly for hospitals and patients. The main underlying causes of these mistakes include the extreme hierarchies of healthcare organizations and the lack of team training. As to the first parameter of the management style, it can be stated that structure and hierarchies are important for preventing chaos within the organizations, but going to extremes, it can do harm. The extreme hierarchies are rooted in the cultural and circumstantial problems with bypassing the traditional schemes.11 The psychological distance between workers and their supervisors can make nurses withhold critical information and tell leaders only what they want to hear. The distance between a leader and the assisting personnel is defined as an authority gradient which is rather high in healthcare. 12 The steepness of the hierarchical structure of the hospitals can reduce the effectiveness of their work. On the one hand, self-assured physicians may implement an autocratic management style and make decisions without much regard to opinions of other specialists. However, it can deprive them of valuable information which is required for improving the system. On the other hand, the problem is with workers who believe that leaders are not even interested in their opinions and do not feel comfortable to express their concerns. These large authority gradients can de crease the effectiveness of intervention plans. The institutional changes are needed in hospitals where the physicians are self-employed while nurses work for the hospital for improving their relationship and reducing the steepness of the authority gradient.13 The second underlying cause of communication mistakes in medical care is the lack of training and the fluidness of teams due to the realities of the health care facilities.Advertising Looking for research paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Currently, medical teams are often composed of people who see each other for the first time and are not prepared for playing specific roles.14 There are a variety of circumstances forcing medical personnel into such a situation, including the staff shortages, unexpected sickness of some specialists and changes to arrangements. Still, the main problem is with the lack of attention to the importance of effective teamwork in medical care. The high level performance in healthcare requires complex interactions between the specialists working in a team and dependent upon each other.15 The authority gradient, the steepness of hierarchies and team training are the main factors which should be reconsidered for shifting the emphasis from individual physicians’ responsibility towards the improvement of organizational structures. Recognizing the importance of teamwork in healthcare instead of putting the main emphasis on individual responsibility is important for minimizing the risks of professional mistakes. The evidence shows that multidisciplinary teams can improve the performance of the health care practitioners significantly.15 With the present-day amount of medical knowledge, one person cannot obtain all the necessary information from all spheres required for selecting the appropriate intervention strategies and applying them into practice. The healthcare teams are recognized as a crucial component required for providing safe and ethical healthcare. Disregarding the importance of dampening the authority gradient in the hospital setting in general, strong leadership is important for these teams.16 Moving towards the patient-centered model of healthcare, these teams need to cross the traditional boundaries of hierarchies and traditional disciplines.17 The united efforts of surgeons, anesthetists, physiotherapists, nurses and administrators would be beneficial for serving the best patients’ interests through improving the performance of the medical person nel. Though the fluid health care teams are often criticized as the obstacle for the effective teamwork, the fixed teams depending upon the individuals who have the experience of working together can be dangerous as well.18 The main disadvantages of the fixed teams in which certain groups of specialist get accustomed to working together include creating the informal hierarchies inside of the teams, making the incorrect assumptions and suffering from the so-called groupthink.19 Thus, it can be stated that involving multiple providers, and the multidisciplinary healthcare teams require creating specialized protocols for defining the roles of each specialist but not relying on human factor of the same individuals working together. Recognizing the importance of effective teamwork for preventing the medical communication errors, it can be stated that health care service providers should cross the traditional hierarchical and disciplinary boundaries for improving their performance and en suring the patient safety. The solution of the problem of communication errors Taking into account the fact that communication problem is the underlying cause of serious medical errors, proper measures need to be imposed for enhancing the effectiveness of teamwork, including training of specialists and employing strategies in the working process. Recognizing the importance of teamwork for ensuring the safety and quality of health care, medical workers can adopt the experience of the aviation communication training called Crew Resource Management. 20 As opposed to healthcare in which the importance of teamwork has been ignored, modern pilots and other members of the staff have been trained as teams for decades. Borrowing the concept of standard aviation procedures can be valuable for the healthcare.21 The main principle of this strategy is dampening the authority gradient for creating the environment in which every member of the team feels comfortable to raise issues and express conc erns. Another significant advantage of this approach is developing standard operating procedures so that every member understands his/her specific role in achieving the common goal.22 Despite the fact that the implementation of crew resource management allowed diminishing the authority gradients and enhancing the safety culture of airlines, certain limitations of using the aviation analogy for healthcare need to be taken into consideration.23 Along with dampening the authority gradient, balancing the no-blame culture and the error reports as a part of accountability are the measures which need to be imposed by hospital settings.24 It is important to acknowledge that the studies on transforming the healthcare safety culture are at their starting point, and further research is required for selecting the most effective strategies for applying these findings into practice.25 The strategies which can be implemented by health care teams for dampening the authority gradients and crossing the traditional hierarchical boundaries can vary from simple techniques to more complex forms. Along with simulation exercises during which the real-life working situations are imitated, health care teams can use certain strategies at the beginning and after completing clinical encounters.26 The simplest technique which can be used by the leader before the beginning of a certain procedure is introducing him/her, admitting personal weaknesses inherent to all humans and saying that every member is welcome to express concerns in case if something goes wrong.27 This simple technique can be valuable for creating proper atmosphere and improving the team performance during the procedure. The team performance can also be improved through the implementation of special techniques after the procedure is over, such as debriefing, for example.28 This strategy involves all the members of a health care team into discussion of the completed procedure for pointing at what was wrong and right about the behaviors of each participant. To enhance the effectiveness of debriefing, all the participants should recognize the importance of critical speaking and expressing certain concerns as well as accepting the fact that everyone, including the leader is fallible. Efforts of every participant are the important attributes to the compensation for the fallibility of healthcare professionals and other causes of medical errors.29 Additionally, the effectiveness of teamwork can be increased in the course of the procedure through the implementation of certain strategies, including the use of SBAR (situation, background, assessment and recommendations) messages and/or CUS (concern, uncomfortable, safety) words.30 Team training is required for teaching the members of the teams not only to use these techniques in appropriate situations but also to react to them accordingly and avoid overusing them. The solution of the problem of the communication problems requires a complex approach and hard work of all team members which starts before the beginning of the procedure and continues during the clinical encounter and even after its completion. Conclusion In general, it can be concluded that the quality of team performance is crucial for ensuring the safety of healthcare. A complex approach to team training is required for enhancing the team performance and serving the best interests of the patients. The changes in the hospital culture are crucial for dampening the hierarchy and improving the organizational systems and enhancing the effectiveness of the medical teams by creating the working environment in which every worker can raise concerns and make a contribution to meeting the shared objective. Notes Bill Runciman, Alan Merry, and Merrilyn Walton, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare: A Guide to Getting It Right (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2007), 1. Robert Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 3. Ibid., 36. Ibid., 4. Runciman et a l, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 116. Ibid., 4. Ibid., 6. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 2. Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety, 10. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 94. Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety, 173. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 100. Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety, 128. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 237. Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety, 104. Ibid., 169. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 163. Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety, 104. Ibid., 104. Ibid., 101. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 245. Ibid., 237. Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety, 102. Ibid., 209. Ibid., 103. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 240. Wachter, Understanding Patient Safety, 104. Ibid., 105. Runciman et al, Safety and Ethics in Healthcare, 109. 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